Ergonomics

The aim of this study is to investigate the isometric strength or MVC (maximum voluntary contraction) by measuring grip strength, arm strength, leg strength, torso strength and key pinch strength. So that each participant’s strength percentile values in the population for each strength category can be calculated and human biomechanical capabilities and relative variability in human capabilities can be understood by comparing the data collected. Also the effects of the factors, like grip span, wrist posture or using the dominant side, on each of the strength categories can be examined. . INTRODUCTION Isometric strength is the force that a muscle group can exert without movement. Maximum Isometric strength is the maximum force that a muscle group can exert without movement. It is also called MVC (maximum voluntary contraction). Some of the widely used isometric strengths are: arm strength, shoulder strength, composite (leg) strength, back (torso) strength, grip strength and pinc h strength. All of the strength categories are measured for the subjects excluding for the ones having health problems about their waist.These measurements are done by using Caldwell Protocol, which says that after a build-up time of about 2 seconds, the subject is required to maintain a steady state maximal exertion for at least 3 seconds and this (average) level is taken as the subject’s strength score. So that we can say that, in general, the isometric strength measurement procedure requires individuals to build-up their muscular exertion slowly over a 4-6 seconds period, without jerking, and maintain the peak exertion for about 3 seconds. This peak exertion (3 sec average) is the isometric strength of the individual.No external motivation should be provided. A break of at least 30 seconds should be provided between successive exertions if only a few measurements are to be made. It is necessary to increase the rest duration to 2 minutes if about 15 measurements are to be m ade in one test session. This additional rest is necessary to recover from fatigue generated due to the isometric exertion (Mital and Kumar, 1998). While measuring the strength categories, the effects of some factors like elbow angle, wrist posture, grip span and using dominant or non-dominant side are observed.The orientation of the arm influences human isometric strength exertion capability. As the arm orientation changes the mechanical advantage also changes, resulting in weaker or stronger strength exertions. Also the wrist orientation is critical in generating isometric torques with non-powered hand tools. Approximately 70% more torque is exerted when wrenches are in the horizontal position than when they are in vertical positions (Mital and Kumar, 1998). Therefore, by using some statistical techniques like ANOVA (Analysis of Variance), the significance of the factors that are mentioned before is tested. . OBJECTIVES The main objective of this study is to investigate the isomet ric strength or MVC (maximum voluntary contraction) by measuring grip strength, arm strength, leg strength, torso strength and key pinch strength. So that each participant’s strength percentile values in the population for each strength category can be calculated and human biomechanical capabilities and relative variability in human capabilities can be understood by comparing the data collected.Also the effects of the factors, like grip span, wrist posture or using the dominant side, on each of the strength categories can be examined. 4. METHODS The experimental task consisted of performing isometric handgrip, pinch grip and lifting contractions for the combinations of the levels of wrist posture, grip-span and by using the dominant or non-dominant side in a standing posture. The equipments used are handgrip dynamometer, pinch grip dynamometer and lift platform.Our lab group conducting this study consists of two female and a male student, which are all right-handed and served as subjects. While measuring the grip strength the combinations of neutral wrist posture with the 5 grip-span settings, vary from 33mm to 85mm, are used. For the 2nd setting the combinations with the wrist flexion and wrist extension are measured too. Then non-dominant side MVC in neutral posture in 3rd setting for males and in 2nd setting for females, and dominant side MVC keeping the wrist in neutral posture and the elbow at 150o angle are measured.The reason for using the 3rd setting for males and 2nd setting for females is that, on average, 3rd setting is the standard for male hand size, and 2nd setting is the standard for female hand size. After finishing the grip strength measurements, the key pinch strength at neutral arm and wrist posture is measured. After all, by using the lifting platform, MVC for arm, leg and torso strength are measured. While measuring all types of strength categories Caldwell protocol is used and all of the measurements are done as two trials. The dat a including only the maximum recordings can be seen from the table below: Table 4. : Collected Data for All Group Members for All Strength Categories |Name |Dominant Grip |Non-dominant |Dominant |Arm | | |Strength(MVC) |GS (MVC) |side GS at |Lift | | | | |elbow 150: | | |Female |16. 43 |4. 47 |19. 6 |17 | |Male |37. 86 |6. 69 |44. 81 |19 | The following table combines the data collected from the subjects with the data taken from the population. By looking at it, one can say that for males, with respect to grip strength, our sample mean, 37. 86 is about the 25% tile in strength, which means, Gurkan has more strength than about 25% of the population. And by using the same way, we can say that our female subjects have more strength than 2% of the population on average.And the information like percentiles for the rest of strength categories can be seen in a same manner from the table below. Table 5. 2: The percentiles of small group and data comparison with the population [pic] Another result from the study is the relationship between grip strength and grip-span and wrist/elbow posture. In order to understand the effects, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test is done. Our ANOVA hypothesis is as the following; H0:The group means are not different. H1:The group means are different. For the ANOVA results we can look at the following table to investigate he r-squared values, p-values and f values to understand the effects and relationships. According to the results taken; the highest p-valued factor is the wrist posture which has 3 levels of extension, neutral and flexion. Then comes the elbow posture and finally the grip-span. Table 5. 3: R-squared, p-value and f values of factors effecting grip strength |   |   |r-squared |p-value |f | |grip |grip – span |0. 9395 |0. 64 |3. 45 | |strength | | | | | |vs. | | | | | | |wrist posture |0. 8997 |0. 769 |0. 28 | | |elbow posture |0. 9896 |0. 321 |1. 71 |The quality of the fit is given by the statistical number r-squ ared. An r-squared of 1. 0 would mean that the model fit the data perfectly, with the line going right through every data point. More realistically, with real data you'd get an r-squared of around 0. 85. Finally in order to support the other techniques we have looked at the result of the Tukey’s test. 5. DISCUSSION The implication of strength measurements in Ergonomic Intervention and the uses and importance of strength data in ergonomic intervention can be explained by the means of the following concepts.Many industrial activities are performed through human intervention. It is generally accepted that knowledge of what a person can or cannot do under specified circumstances is essential for efficient work design and injury prevention. Human strength recommendations for tool design and work and workspace design have also been receiving considerable attention. Lack of design guidelines and screening procedures can lead to overloading of the muscle-tendon –bone-joint sys tem and, thereby, fatigue and possible consequent injuries. As a matter of fact, Chaffin et al. (1978) have reported that the incidence rate of back injuries ustained on the job increased when the job strength requirements exceeded isometric strengths of the workers. Human strengths of individuals thus form the basis for many design data bases and screening procedures. Therefore we can say that the overall intent of these developments is to reduce injuries and, in the process, maximize industrial productivity. 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The results indicate that although there’s not a significant difference, the optimum grip-span setting for the males is the 3rd, for the females is the 2nd setting as it’s been told in the literature.These findings were supported by the results of tukey’s test, which shows that the maximum strength is achieved with these settings. Also when we look at the R-squared values from the ANOVA test applied to understand the rela tionship between grip strength and grip-span and wrist/elbow posture, we can see that the effect is not so significant because of the large R-squared values. But if we want to sort them, wrist posture is the most significant, and then grip-span and elbow posture come respectively, where it can be seen easily from the table below: Table 7. : R-squared values for the factors effecting grip strenth |   |   |r-squared | |grip |grip – span |0. 9395 | |strength | | | |vs. | | | |wrist posture |0. 8997 | | |elbow posture |0. 9896 | Although the effect is not significant, the study suggests that grip span of a tool and the posture of wrist and elbow are important factors to be considered.From this study it can be understood that the isometric strength measurement is inexpensive and flexible. But the major disadvantage of isometric testing is that only one joint angle is tested at a time. If different joint angles need to be tested, the process must be repeated for each angle. The refore as a further study, ways to test different joint angles one at a time can be studied. REFERENCES Eksioglu, M. , 2006. Optimal work-rest cycles for an isometric intermittent gripping task as a function of force, posture and grip span.Ergonomics, 49, 180-201. Eksioglu, M. , 2004. Relative optimum grip span as a function of hand anthropometry. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 34, 1-12. Mital, A. , Kumar, S. , 1998. Human muscle strength definitions, measurement, and usage: Part I – Guidelines for the practitioner. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 22, 101-121. Mital, A. , Kumar, S. , 1998. Human muscle strength definitions, measurement, and usage: Part II – The scientific basis (knowledge base) for the guide.International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 22, 123-144. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Confidence_interval http://talkstats. com/showthread. php? t=2460 http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Analysis_of_variance http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Student's_t-test http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Multiple_comparisons http://www. le. ac. uk/bl/gat/virtualfc/Stats/mult. htm APPENDIX A) Descriptive statistics of the collected sample data (mean, std. dev. , and range only). In calculations, we have considered only the highest values but not all trial values. Table A. Descriptive Statistics of the collected sample data | | |Descriptive Statistics: FEMALE | | | |Variable Mean StDev Variance Range | |FEMALE 16,43 4,47 19,96 17,0 | | | |Descriptive Statistics: MALE | | |Variable Mean StDev Variance Range | |MALE 37,86 6,69 44,81 19,00 | B) Each participant’s strength percentile values in the population for each strength category (pinch strength calculations excluded). Again, we have considered only the highest values but not all trial values. Table B. 1 Grip strength percentile calculations | |Descriptive Statistics: Dicle; Duygu; Gurkan | | | |Variable Q1 Median Q3 IQR | |Dicle 10,00 15,00 17,00 7,00 | |Duygu 15,00 19, 00 20,00 5,00 | |Gurkan 33,00 36,00 43,00 10,00 |Table B. 2 Leg, arm, torso strength percentiles measured for each participant | | |Descriptive Statistics: ARM. M; LEG. F; LEG. M; TORSO. M; TORSO. F;ARM. DYG; ARM. DCL | | | |Variable Q1 Median Q3 IQR | |ARM.M * 34,300 * * | |LEG. F * 48,40 * * | |LEG. M * 109,90 * * | |TORSO. M * 119,1 * * | |TORSO. F * 53,00 * * | |ARM.DYG * 15,650 * * | |ARM. DCL * 11,20 * * | C) 95% confidence interval for the true average grip strength, based on the sample data. [pic] C. I. for alpha = 0. 05 For males: (30. 334 , 45. 386) For females: (9. 466 , 23. 394) These intervals say that; in 95 of 100 trials these intervals contain the true average grip strength. D) Grip-strength vs. grip-width and wrist/elbow posture relationships: Table D. 1 ANOVA : Grip-span sets relationship General Linear Model: Value versus Grip; Member | | | |Factor Type Levels Values | |Grip fixed 5 set1; set2; set3; set4; set5 | |Member fixed 3 dicle; duygu; gurkan | | | | | |Ana lysis of Variance for Value, using Adjusted SS for Tests | | | |Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P | |Grip 4 171,60 171,60 42,90 3,45 0,064 | |Member 2 1374,40 1374,40 687,20 55,20 0,000 | |Error 8 99,60 99,60 12,45 | |Total 14 1645,60 | | | | | |S = 3,52846 R-Sq = 93,95% R-Sq(adj) = 89,41% | Table D. 2 ANOVA : Wrist posture relationship General Linear Model: values versus position; names | | | |Factor Type Levels Values | |position fixed 3 ext; flex; neutral | |names fixed 3 dicle; duygu; gurkan | | | | | |Analysis of Variance for values, using Adjusted SS for Tests | | | |Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P | |position 2 18,67 18,67 9,33 0,28 0,769 | |names 2 1178,00 1178,00 589,00 17,67 0,010 | |Error 4 133,33 133,33 33,33 | |Total 8 1330,00 | | | | | |S = 5,77350 R-Sq = 89,97% R-Sq(adj) = 79,95% | Table D. 3 ANOVA : Elbow position relationship |General Linear Model: numbers versus elbow. ; members | | | |Factor Type Levels Values | |elbow. p fixed 2 ds150; neutral | |members fixe d 3 dicle; duygu; gurkan | | | | | |Analysis of Variance for numbers, using Adjusted SS for Tests | | | |Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P |elbow. p 1 6,00 6,00 6,00 1,71 0,321 | |members 2 660,33 660,33 330,17 94,33 0,010 | |Error 2 7,00 7,00 3,50 | |Total 5 673,33 | | | | | |S = 1,87083 R-Sq = 98,96% R-Sq(adj) = 97,40% |The quality of the fit is given by the statistical number r-squared. An r-squared of 1. 0 would mean that the model fit the data perfectly, with the line going right through every data point. More realistically, with real data you'd get an r-squared of around 0. 85. So that, we can say that the effect of the factors investigated is not significant by looking at the large R-squared values. E) Comparison analysis among the data collected (Analysis of Variance, multiple comparison and t-tests, as necessary). In testing the null hypothesis that the population mean is equal to a specified value  ? 0, one uses the statistic [pic] where  s  is the  sample standar d deviation  of the sample and  n  is the sample size.The degrees of freedom used in this test is  n  ? 1. Also we can use the Multiple Comparison Tests, which are a group of tests that follow on from one or two-factor ANOVA or the Kruskal-Wallis test,  but only if significant differences have been found. It would appear that they could be used on their own but because they are not as powerful as ANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis, they can occasionally fail to find differences when the former succeed. They are used for exactly the same reasons that ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis are used, but provide more information. ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis can only tell you whether there is a difference between two or more of your groups and not which ones.We made ANOVA test for the grip-span settings, elbow/wrist posture and dominant/non-dominant side usage. When we look at the R-squared values from the ANOVA results, we fail to reject the null hypothesis; H0: The group means are not different. H1: The group means are different. Because, we have large R-squared values. And also by looking at the F and p-values,which is a small value, we can say that there is not a significant difference between the test groups. There is no need to conduct Tukey test because of failing to reject the null hypothesis, but despite of this situation we have conducted to support our previous results. And again we saw that there is not a significant difference. C25 = set1 subtracted from: | | | |C25 Lower Center Upper ——-+———+———+———+– | |set2 -27,59 5,00 37,59 (————*————) | |set3 -26,26 6,33 38,93 (————-*————) | |set4 -32,59 0,00 32,59 (————*————) | |set5 -35,26 -2,67 29,93 (————*————) | |— —-+———+———+———+– | |-25 0 25 50 | In this test, set 1 is compared with the other sets’ average. And as it can be seen the sets are not significantly different, there is only a slight difference, because the range includes â€Å"0†. So that there’s chance that different sets give the same results. TUKEY’S TEST FOR SETS: One-way ANOVA: C26 versus C25 | | | |Source DF SS MS F P | |C25 4 172 43 0,29 0,877 | |Error 10 1474 147 | |Total 14 1646 | | | |S = 12,14 R-Sq = 10,43% R-Sq(adj) = 0,00% | | | | | |Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on | |Pooled StDev | |Level N Mean StDev ——-+———+———+———+– | |set1 3 21,67 12,42 (————*————) | |set2 3 26,67 14,15 (————*————) | |set3 3 28,00 13,75 (—à ¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€*————) | |set4 3 21,67 10,60 (————*————) | |set5 3 19,00 9,00 (————*————) | |——-+———+———+———+– | |12 24 36 48 | | | |Pooled StDev = 12,14 | | | | |Tukey 95% Simultaneous Confidence Intervals | |All Pairwise Comparisons among Levels of C25 | | | |Individual confidence level = 99,18% | | | | | |C25 = set1 subtracted from: | | | |C25 Lower Center Upper ——-+———+———+———+– | |set2 -27,59 5,00 37,59 (————*————) | |set3 -26,26 6,33 38,93 (————-*————) | |set4 -32,59 0,00 32,59 (————*————) | |set5 -35,2 6 -2,67 29,93 (————*————) | |——-+———+———+———+– | |-25 0 25 50 | | | | | |C25 = set2 subtracted from: | | | |C25 Lower Center Upper ——-+———+———+———+– | |set3 -31,26 1,33 33,93 (————-*————) | |set4 -37,59 -5,00 27,59 (————*————) | |set5 -40,26 -7,67 24,93 (————*————) |——-+———+———+———+– | |-25 0 25 50 | | | | | |C25 = set3 subtracted from: | | | |C25 Lower Center Upper ——-+———+———+———+– | |set4 -38,93 -6,33 26,26 (——â€⠀Ã¢â‚¬â€*————-) | |set5 -41,59 -9,00 23,59 (————*————) | |——-+———+———+———+– | |-25 0 25 50 | | | | | |C25 = set4 subtracted from: | | | |C25 Lower Center Upper ——-+———+———+———+– | |set5 -35,26 -2,67 29,93 (————*————) | |——-+———+———+———+– | | | |-25 0 25 50 | E) CONTINUED Comparison of our data with population data. In order to compare, we should calculate the percentiles; Calculating percentiles for a value relative to a population with known mean (50th %tile) and standard deviation (assuming normal distribution): 1. Calculate z. [pic] z = (37,86 – 40. 5)/3. 84 = -0,69 2. Look up the z val ue from the table of â€Å"cumulative probabilities of the standard normal distribution. † z = -0,69 is about 0. 25 so the percentile is 25% for the first calculation.Here is the table of our all computations taken from EXCEL: Table E. 1 Comparison of our data with population data [pic] The following table combines the data collected from the subjects with the data taken from the population. By looking at it, one can say that for males, with respect to grip strength, our sample mean, 37. 86 is about the 25% tile in strength, which means, Gurkan has more strength than about 25% of the population. And by using the same way, we can say that our female subjects have more strength than 2% of the population on average. And the information like percentiles for the rest of strength categories can be seen in a same manner from the table above.

Psy

Predict success In achieving your goals based on your past positive experiences, your Individual personality (as determined by the trait approach discussed In chapter six), and your major field of study. This assignment must be approximately four pages in length (not Including the title and reference pages), double spaced, written in Times New Roman 12-point font, and submitted as a Microsoft Word document using the Assignment Submission button. For additional help, please see Sample Week Four Paper. Support your work with citations from two scholarly sources.One can be from Adult Development and Learning; however, the other source must be from the Gifford university Library. The video, Finding Scholarly Sources, is a helpful guide to locating appropriate sources from the library. The paper must be properly formatted according to PAP style as outlined in the Gifford Writing Center and include a separate title and reference page. The Gifford Writing Center (CAW) has two kinds of tutor ing available to you. I have often thought of my dream Job and what I would like to do as a career or job if I could solely focus on what would make me happy instead of would would make me he most money.Physical setting and environment in which you would like to spend your working hours. In regards to my dream Job and where I would like for it to take place. My dream Job would be owner of my own party planning company. The great part of being a party planner is that my physical setting would change providing me a change of scenery should I need It. I would have the option of working from home when need It. A office space to meet with clients and the enjoyment of meeting clients at different venues on the actual day of the events and In the different phases of planning.Types of activities and responsibilities you would Like to spend your time performing I love helping people and planning parties and events it's something that allows me to be creative. My responsibilities would includ e meeting with clients and making sure that I make sure that there special occasion request are fulfilled in addition I will spend time traveling to different venues and networking with people who are in efficiently. Kinds of people like you like working with. I have spend the last 20 years working in customer service. I have met people from all walks of life. I am truly a people person.I love working with all people. One of the reasons that I chose being a party planner as my dream Job is due to the fact that I like working with people and being a party planner will give me the chance to meet and help a lot of people that I probably other wise would not get a chance to know. Personal goals an accomplishment you would like to achieve as part of your work. I like helping people in addition it has always been my goal to own run and operate a successful company. Nothing is more rewarding than helping people while doing something you enjoy and of course making money at the same time.As long as I use the skills that I have learned so far in this course in regards to accomplishing short term and long term goals I am confident that I can one day own and operate my own business. 1 . What steps does your textbooks author recommend for achieving your short term goals? The author has a lot of good advice in regard to achieving your short term goals. But the two steps that he has to get you to your goal are. To identify the appropriate goals and then devise an effective plan and strategy to achieve your goals.The author then goes into detail on how to do this such as identifying your worth term goals and then ranking them in order and then selecting what is most important or urgent. 2. What steps does your textbooks author recommend for achieving your long term goals? The author explains that setting long term goals can be a bit complex and long term goals can often change as you change or grow older. The author also explains that you need to identify the most appropriate long term goal for yourself in addition you need to have an understanding of yourself and find things that interest your or bring you satisfaction. . Describe an important decision n your academic or personal life that you will have to make in the near future. In the near future I will have a very important decision to make that will effect my academic as well as my personal life. I am thinking long and hard about relocating to a different state. If I do that will mean a new school as well as relocating my son and moving him away from friends and family. It will be hard but when I look at the pros and cons I believe that the move will be hard but in the best interest of me and my son in the long term. 4.Explain the reasons for your decision and conclude with your est. possible choice (reference the five step decision making approach described in Chapter 1, pages 21 – 24) A decision to move to another state cannot be taken lightly especially when you have others who will be e ffected by your decision In using the method for decision making as described in the text book I have clearly thought out by thoughts about moving to another state, what I would do when I got there could I achieve my goals without moving and if indeed moving is the right thing to do at this time. In mapping it out it is clear that I need to put a lot more thought and

That Is vs. Which Is

That Is vs. Which Is That Is vs. Which Is That Is vs. Which Is By Mark Nichol This generation, like every one before it and every one to follow, has the dubious pleasure of seeing evolution of language in action. The changes are obvious to careful writers, as they notice with distressingly increasing frequency the erosion of a distinction between words with similar but divergent meanings (for example, anxious versus eager) or a relaxing of a grammatical rule. One example of the latter that is near or at its tipping point (in this case, the point at which a grammatical error becomes so ubiquitous as to widely be deemed acceptable) is the distinction between restrictive and nonrestrictive, or essential and nonessential, clauses. Throughout the modern era, at least in American English, careful writers have honored a distinction between the use of â€Å"that is† and â€Å"which is† and, universally, the insertion or omission of punctuation to begin or bracket a subordinate clause. For example, the sentences â€Å"The dog that has a bone is well trained† and â€Å"The dog, which has a bone, is well trained† have distinct meanings signaled not only by the difference of a word but also the use of parenthetical punctuation in the latter sentence. For the sake of promoting unambiguous communication, such statements as â€Å"The dog which has a bone is well trained† is avoided (though such usage is common in British English). The phrase â€Å"that has a bone† in â€Å"The dog that has a bone is well trained† provides essential information: More than one dog is visible to the speaker or writer and the observer or reader, and the person making the statement is providing an additional detail to direct the other person to one dog in particular. By contrast, â€Å"The dog, which has a bone, is well trained† likely refers to a scenario in which only one dog is present. The sentence does not specify whether one or more other dogs are in the vicinity, because such information is irrelevant. The phrase â€Å"which has a bone† is providing additional, nonessential information to the base sentence â€Å"The dog is well trained.† Unfortunately, writers often fail to observe the distinction, and even more unfortunately, many of these writers are paid to write; their content is published online and in printed publications that many other people read, and many of these other people see the erroneous content, accept it (it’s published, after all, so it must be correct- right?), and consciously or unconsciously imitate it. Eventually, the tipping point is reached, and (for better or worse) wrong becomes right. A case in point, with not one but two identical grammatical violations: One writer said of two much-anticipated films, â€Å"Before giving us his upcoming Blade Runner sequel that’s shrouded in mystery, director Denis Villeneuve has the sci-fi movie Arrival that is getting incredible  word of mouth.† By including the phrases â€Å"that’s shrouded in mystery† and â€Å"that is getting incredible word of mouth†- with that in place of which and without parenthetical punctuation- the writer creates the impression that the phrases are essential. Evidently, more than one Blade Runner sequel is imminent, and one of them, directed by Denis Villeneuve, is shrouded in mystery. (Presumably, the other is not- or the others are not.) In addition, of two or more movies titled Arrival, one is getting incredible word of mouth. (Presumably, the other is not- or the others are not.) What the writer should have written is â€Å"Before giving us his upcoming Blade Runner sequel, which is shrouded in mystery, director Denis Villeneuve has the sci-fi movie Arrival, which is getting incredible  word of mouth.† This sentence describes two unique films, one of which is shrouded in mystery and one of which is getting incredible word of mouth. The phrases that provide those additional details are bracketed by commas to signal that the details are not necessary for one to understand the basic fact that two films directed by the same man are being released in sequence. (The additional information is potentially intriguing but not essential.) I’ve noticed the lack of distinction between essential and nonessential clauses more and more often over the years, not because I’m more observant than before but because the erosion is more common than it used to be. I know that such evolution is inevitable, but as with any change, one can accept the inevitability yet still resist it. More than that, it is the responsibility of all careful writers to do so. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:50 Idioms About Legs, Feet, and ToesDisappointed + PrepositionWhile vs. Whilst

Historical Summary - The War of 1812 essays

Historical Summary - The War of 1812 essays The direct causes of the War of 1812 were a group of economic restrictions placed on America by Britain and France. These restrictions were part of the Napoleonic Wars and American fury at the British practice of impressment, the practice of stopping American vessels and forcing American sailors to work on British ships, especially after the Chesapeake incident in 1807. In 1806, the British wrote up the Orders of Council that damaged American trade. This made the U.S., under Jefferson, to attempt several disciplinary prohibitions. However, these prohibitions hurt the U.S. much more than they hurt Britain and this angered many American people and provided support to the War Hawks of Congress such as Henry Clay. Then, in 1812, Congress declared war against the British. The war started with an attack on Canada. This attack was a plan to gain land and to stop British supply lines to Tecumsehs Indian confederation, which had troubled America for quite some time. The War Hawks had hoped that the first battles in Canada would be fairly easy yet he was not so fortunate. The inexperienced soldiers were pushed back very quickly and had to rethink their plans. Actually, there was a large chance that a serious northern-front invasion of the U.S. if America hadnt been victorious at Lake Erie and Lake Champlain. General William Henry Harrison and his forces killed Tecumseh at the Battle of the Thames in 1813 while fighting another important battle against the British General Isaac Brook and his small force. British troops landed in the Chesapeake Bay area and marched towards Washington in 1814. The U.S. attempted to stop the British invasion when U.S. General William Winder attacked the British General Robert Ross at Bladensburg. Unfortunately, U.S. forces were badly routed and the British reached Washington. The troops burned down the capitol, the Presidents House, and much more of the suburban areas in Washington. The Bri...

Disinformation Definition

Disinformation Definition Disinformation is the deliberate and purposeful distribution of false information. The term is generally used to describe an organized campaign to deceptively distribute untrue material intended to influence public opinion. In recent years, the term has become especially associated with the spread of fake news on social media as a strategy of negative political campaigning. Key Takeaways: Disinformation The terms disinformation and misinformation are often used interchangeably, but they are not synonymous. Disinformation requires that the message be false, distributed purposefully, and with the goal of altering public opinion.The strategic use of disinformation can be traced back to the Soviet Union in the 1920s, where it was known as dezinformatsiya.In English, the term was first used in the 1950s, referring to Cold War disinformation campaigns.Social media has exacerbated the impact of disinformation campaigns. Definition of Disinformation A key component of the definition of disinformation is the intention of the person or entity creating the message. Disinformation is distributed with the specific purpose of misleading the public. The false information is meant to impact society by swaying the opinions of the members of the audience. The term disinformation is said to be derived from a Russian word, dezinformatsiya, with some accounts holding that Joseph Stalin coined it. It is generally accepted that the Soviet Union pioneered the deliberate use of false information as a weapon of influence in the 1920s. The word remained relatively obscure for decades and was used mainly by military or intelligence professionals, not the general public, until the 1950s. Disinformation vs. Misinformation An important distinction to make is that disinformation does not mean misinformation. Someone can spread misinformation innocently by saying or writing things that are untrue while believing them to be true. For example, a person sharing a news report on social media may commit an act of misinformation if the source turns out to unreliable and the information incorrect. The specific person who shared it acts as a result of misinformation if he or she believes it to be true. On the other hand, deliberately distributing false material with the purpose of generating outrage or chaos in society, essentially as a political dirty trick, would rightfully be referred to as spreading disinformation. Following the same example, the agent who created the false information in the unreliable source is guilty of creating and spreading disinformation. The intention is to cause a reaction in the public opinion based on the false information that he or she created. What Is a Disinformation Campaign? Disinformation is often part of a larger effort, such as a campaign, plan, or agenda. It may take advantage of well-established facts while tweaking details, omitting context, blending falsehoods, or distorting circumstances. The goal is to make the disinformation believable in order to reach the target audience. Multiple acts of disinformation may be carried out simultaneously in different outlets to achieve a goal. For example, different articles intended to discredit a political candidate may circulate at the same time, with each version tailored to the readership. A younger reader may see an article about the candidate treating a young person poorly, while an elderly reader may see the same article but the victim may be an elderly person. Targeting of this sort is especially prominent in social media sites. In the modern era, the 2016 efforts waged by Russians targeting the U.S. elections is perhaps the best-known example of a disinformation campaign. In this case, the perpetrators used Facebook and Twitter to disseminate fake news, as was revealed by the hearings on Capitol Hill which examined and exposed the scheme. In May 2018, members of Congress ultimately revealed more than 3,000 Facebook ads which had been purchased by Russian agents during the 2016 election. The ads were full of deliberate falsehoods designed to stir outrage. The placement of the ads had been fairly sophisticated, targeting and reaching millions of Americans at very little cost. On February 16, 2018, the Office of the Special Counsel, led by Robert Mueller, indicted the Russian government troll farm, the Internet Research Agency, along with 13 individuals and three companies. The highly detailed 37-page indictment described a sophisticated disinformation campaign designed to create discord and influence the 2016 election. Russian Disinformation Disinformation campaigns had been a standard tool during the Cold War and mentions of Russian disinformation would occasionally appear in the American press. In 1982, TV Guide, one of the most popular magazines in America at the time, even published a cover story warning about Russian disinformation. Recent research has indicated that the Soviet Union spread disinformation about America and the AIDS epidemic in the 1980s. A conspiracy theory that AIDS had been created in an American germ warfare lab was spread by the Soviet KGB, according to a 2018 NPR report. The use of information as a potential weapon in the modern era was documented in a deeply reported article in the New York Times Magazine in June 2015. Writer Adrian Chen recounted remarkable stories of how Russian trolls, operating from an office building in St. Petersburg, Russia, had posted untrue information to wreak havoc in America. The Russian troll farm described in the article, the Internet Research Agency, was the same organization that would be indicted by Robert Muellers office in February 2018. Sources: Manning, Martin J. Disinformation.  Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence and Security, edited by K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, vol. 1, Gale, 2004, pp. 331-335.  Gale Virtual Reference Library.Chen, Adrian. The Agency. New York Times Sunday Magazine, 7 June 2015. p. 57.Barnes, Julian E. Cyber Command Operation Took Down Russian Troll Farm for Midterm Elections. New York Times, 26 February 2019. p. A9.disinformation. Oxford Dictionary of English. Ed. Stevenson, Angus. Oxford University Press, January 01, 2010. Oxford Reference.

DWIGHT EISENHOWER Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

DWIGHT EISENHOWER - Essay Example In 1944-1945, as the leader of the Western Front, Dwight Eisenhower managed to successfully invade and occupy Germany and France1.In 1951, he was appointed as the first military supreme leader of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.He also served as the Chief of Staff, under the Harry Truman presidency. Dwight Eisenhower entered the United States political arena in 1952, in order to counter the threats that came from communist Korea. He also engaged in politics in order to counter the non-interventionism policies that were drafted by Senator Robert Taft. During his first year of presidency2, Eisenhower managed to sponsor a coup in Iran. This led to the overthrow of Mohammad Mosadegh. This was after the Iranian government nationalized its oil reserves, which were mostly controlled by the British and American companies. On this basis, nationalization of the oil reserves would have impacted negatively on the American interests. One of the greatest achievements of Dwight Eisenhower wa s to convince China to stop the1950 to 1953 war that was between South Korea and North Korea. South Korea was supported by United Nations, while North Korea was supported by China. North Korea practiced communism as a system of governance. In this war, under the auspices of the United Nations, United States of America contributed more than 80% of the troops that operated in South Korea.

Hunffington Posts review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Hunffington Posts review - Essay Example This was a bit of a bold move considering the outcome AOL’s previous merger with Time Warner, which ended in disaster. It is not difficult to understand the reasons for it. AOL gets access to all of the HuffPost’s readers (i.e. customers) to sell its other products to and HuffPost gets the opportunity to be part of a major new media company. In the context of the newspaper industry, I feel that this merger has both a positive and a negative aspect. As a member of the ‘internet’ generation, I like to see innovation and change. The internet has truly democratized the exchange of information in a way that the printing press or the telephone could not, despite their historically meaningful contribution to the same. If AOL and HuffPost can become sustainably profitable, the new company will provide a model for what journalism and journalists need to do in the future in order to not only survive but actually thrive. That of course brings me to the negative side of the merger. The merger has occurred in an environment which has witnessed the near collapse of the newspaper industry (and the homologous printed book industry). As an avid reader of both books and newspapers, I do not find great pleasure in their disappearance. The printed word has been at the center of human cultural growth over the last few centuries . Personally I love the smell of old books and a freshly printed newspaper. That smell brings up memories of rainy afternoons spent devouring books and mornings spent watching my father read the paper before going to work. The idea that Kindles and websites will replace all that is displeasing and even frightening. You can touch paper. You cannot touch a computer-generated image. The Dewey-Lippman debate in some ways presaged the 21st evolution of the news media. Lippman once said that the â€Å"average American [reader]† is similar to the â€Å"deaf spectator in the back row† in that â€Å"[h]e does not